by Jim Pruitt
The purpose of this overview is to provide a fairly extensive but surely not exhaustive bibliography on the subject of dialogue. A further purpose is to clarify and coalesce my own thoughts and understandings of the origins, variations, and history of the process of dialogue. My interest in dialogue as a means of learning and communication came together last year during the Reflective Practice course. As a result of this experience and outside readings of authors such as Bohm (1996) and Senge (1990), I began to see the potential for dialogue as a tool for education and business communication, as well as for inter- and intra- personal relationship building. Moreover, as envisioned by Bohm (1994, 1995, 1996), Krishnamurti (1985, 1997), and others, it represents an avenue to a new world view.
David Bohm
David Bohm was a theoretical physicist whose work in quantum mechanics led him to question the traditional views of science and philosophy. Bohm had always been interested in the structure of societies and became interested in Marxist philosophy during his graduate years at Cal Tech and Cal Berkeley. This interest eventually caused him to flee the United States when the government began to investigate the political associations of the physicists associated with the Manhattan Project. Bohm spent several years in Brazil and Israel before settling in England.
While working at Birkbeck College in London he developed an association with the World Teacher of the International Society of Theosophists, Jiddu Krishnamurti. A quote in one of Krishnamurti's writings piqued Bohm's interest. Krishnamurti (1975) wrote "the observer is the observed," an insight generally shared by many quantum physicists, who discovered that their findings depended primarily on how they chose to inquire.
One of Krishnamurti's styles of teaching was to engage in dialogue with his students (it would be incorrect to call them followers because Krishnamurti believed the world needed fewer leaders who preached political and religious dogma). During this relationship Bohm combined his unique insights in both science and philosophy to describe the process of dialogue in his book On Dialogue (1996).
The process of dialogue described by Bohm represents a communication system as well as a new world view. Along with Krishnamurti, Bohm and many of his contemporaries believed that humanity needed a method of communication that would foster mutual understanding and ultimately prevent the use of the newly developed weapons of mass destruction. Bohm's influence and contacts with thinkers who shared his world view is evident in the authors listed in the bibliography. Students, associates, and co-participators in dialogues include De Maré et. al. (1991), Blake (1996), Isaacs (1993), Zohar and Marshall (1994), Factor (1994), and Peat (1997).
Education and Critical Theory:
In education, critical theory means not believing everything that you hear, read, and see, and urges learners to wrestle with their experiences and question how, what, and why something comes about. Paulo Freire (1997), a leader in this area, coined the term conscientization or critical consciousness to describe this way of thinking. Freire believed that dialogue should be used in education as both a means of enhancing understanding and making a difference in the world. Freire and his associates (such as Shor, 1996) used dialogue as a tool for deepening mutual respect and empowerment of students in the educational process. Grounded in the philosophic history and traditions of central Europe (such as Habermas, 1987; Pietrykowski, 1996; Gramsci, see Gill, 1993 and Karl Marx) the use of dialogic thought and communication has provided a new and profound approach to the learning and change process.
Paulo Freire views politics and education as activities - that is, with an important action dimension which goes beyond theory and reflection. His pedagogy is an active process, for learners as well as for teachers. It proclaims a radically new relationship between teachers and learners, between learners and fellow learners, and between learners and knowledge. Dynamic dialogue between teachers and learners may even lead to them creating new knowledge. (Lister, 1994)
Speech Communication
The meaning, structure and language of dialogic discourse are analyzed in this area of literature. These studies include analysis of such areas as miscommunication, inferencing, and verbal and nonverbal meaning. While these works (Baxter and Montgomery, 1996; Macovski, 1997; and Markova et al., 1995) focus on a different aspect of dialogue, the insights gained from their analyses is nonetheless interesting with implications for collaborative learning.
Mystical
I consider the authors in this category mystical since their goals and methods are not clear. In particular, Anthony Blake (1995, 1996), a student of Bohm's, developed some peculiar theories of dialogue. In his book Structures of Meaning (which I have not read nor seen since it does not appear to have wide circulation, although it can be ordered via the http://www.duversity.org web site) Blake discusses a theory of dialogue called N-LOGUE. N-LOGUE examines patterns of conversation based on the number (N) of people involved. In this scheme differing patterns emerge based on whether what is observed is a "Monalogue," "Dyalogue," "Trialogue," "Tetralogue," etc. Blake is involved in such interesting ventures as "the School of Ignorance," the "International Conference of Impossible People," and the "Union of International Associations," many of which are described in his book.
Blake's work is also influenced by Gurdjieff (1960) and his students Ouspensky (1977), Nicoll (1996), and Bennett (1989). Gurdjieff, dubbed the "rascal sage" by Alan Watts (1966), belongs to the school of "Esoteric Psychology." Much of his writing and teaching revolves around the concept of self-knowledge. His work is influenced by western psychology; and both eastern and western religious philosophies. He is credited with development of the Enneagram, a nine pointed geometric figure used to define and display individual personality traits.
Interestingly, his teaching methods appeared to involve a form of dialogue. As described by Ouspensky (1977), their meetings most often took place away from the formal university setting and involved much talk and discussion amongst Gurdjieff and his students.
Krishnamurti could easily be considered in the category of mystic as well. Benjamin (1971) compared Krishnamurti's thought on self knowledge with Gurdjieff's. Krishnamurti, a member of the International Society of Theosophists (who combine the study of science, social science, philosophy, and religion), was considered by them the vehicle for the reincarnation of the Hindu god Lord Maitreya. The Theosophists designated Krishnamurti as the "World Teacher" and schooled him at some of the best universities in England. Krishnamurti ultimately shed his title as World Teacher in his famous "Truth is a Pathless Land" speech. He continued to teach and founded schools that attempt to emphasize individuality free from the dogma of religion and nationality.
Self knowledge:
This category, grounded in a dialogical philosophy of self knowledge, is based primarily on the work of Martin Buber (1996). Its philosophy is firmly grounded in western Judaic religion and psychology. For Buber, it was important to understand the distinction between two different types of human existence "what one's reality is" as opposed to "the image of what one wishes to be."
Dialogue was a process in which these two aspects of human existence came to light for the individual. Through dialogue, the distinction between reality and image became clear. The interaction between participants in dialogue enables authentic existence, separate from appearances or images. Much of the process that Buber (Friedman, 1960) describes for dialogue resembles that of Bohm.
Psychological Therapy:
Dialogue as a form of therapy is described by De Maré et al. (1991), Frankl (1984), and Friedman (1992). Friedman's use of dialogue in therapy is influenced by the psychological views of Buber. Therapy aims to connect the individual with the reality of the world to be faced. Through dialogue the psychotherapist attempts to experience the client's side of the relationship. This type of therapy is similar to Frankl's (1984) method for examining what is most meaningful in a client's life. Frankl's school of therapy (Logotherapy) is based on his insights gained while observing the behavior of fellow prisoners in the concentration camps of Nazi Germany during World War II.
Through dialogue the psychotherapist attempts to learn what aspects of an individual's life carry the most meaning. This information forms a basis for further dialogue that attempts to bring clients to understand what is most important in their lives.
The approach used by De Maré et. al. (1991) concerns the use of dialogue as group therapy. In larger groups De Maré attempts to bring an individual to grips with the influences of culture on behavior. By creating a link between the inner self and cultural context, client behavior can be modified.
Indigenous
I found little concrete discussion of dialogue in this area, although the search is not complete.
In the Quaker faith and the life of Native Americans, oral traditions are well known. Perhaps because they are oral traditions, not much has been written describing the processes involved. Quaker meeting traditions are well known, but the form of communication does not follow the mode of dialogue described by Bohm or Buber, for example. Meetings involve long periods of silence followed by contributions from those moved to speak. I found little evidence that the meeting functions to create shared meaning. Other forms of meeting are conducted for business purposes, but again little suggests that dialogue is part of the process.
Oral traditions of the First Nations (often called "Native Americans) enter the education of the young through storytelling (Underwood, 1994). However, little is written to suggest some form of dialogue as part of the process. In E-mail correspondence with Paula Underwood I learned that in traditional tribal meetings discussion or dialogue aimed at consensus when the topic of discussion affected all its members. These discussions may have included such issues as where to locate a winter camp and when to move. But she made it clear that in these cases consensus was the goal, with the respect of the individual's opinion considered.
According to Lorna Williams, a respected scholar whose heritage is First Nations:
In some Native American nations many decision about such things as "determine where to put a winter camp" would be made by elder women. Other decisions concerning community functioning would be made by appointed community members. Decisions requiring whole community agreememt might be international agreements; gransgressions that families couldn't resolve; or agreements on resolving issues concerning the nation. If agreement could not be reached it is left for another time. Little has been written because the processes were not fully understood or of little interest to those who write "academic articles."
New dialogue: Application
By far the largest area, this category embraces the use of dialogue in modern business in general, and more particularly in forming learning organizations within the company or institution. Influenced by Bohm, the references listed cover specific areas such as collaborative learning, creativity, and teamwork. In this area, perhaps the foremost issue is conforming to the guidelines for successful dialogue while making it practical to use in a business world where acceptance of this form of communication may be individually threatening.
Conclusion
Perhaps the greatest challenge for the use of dialogue lies in the ability to apply it in a context in which it will be successful. Many applications for dialogue have been discussed: education, psychotherapy, cultural traditions of communication, and business.
Bohm's concept of dialogue, I believe, represents a world view that relates a means of learning, communicating, and sharing meaning. The dialogue he describes in On Dialogue may need to be adjusted to the specific situation and application. Indeed this is the content of much of the modern discussion of dialogue in a business and education context (Chawla and Renesch, 1995; Ellinor and Gerard, 1998; and Schrage, 1995). For dialogue to be successful, participants must be schooled in the process. Users (those who choose to use dialogue as a method of collaboration) must understand the goals and potential of this process.
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